SSWH4 The student will analyze the importance of the Byzantine and Mongol empires between 450 CE and 1500 CE.
a. Analyze the importance of Justinian, include the influence of the Empress Theodora, Justinian’s Code, and Justinian’s efforts to recapture the west. b. Describe the relationship between the Roman and Byzantine Empires; include the impact Byzantium had on Moscow and the Russian Empire, the effect of Byzantine culture on Tsar Ivan III and Kiev, and the rise of Constantinople as a center for law, religion, and the arts. c. Explain the Great Schism of 1054 CE. d. Analyze the spread of the Mongol Empire; include the role of Chinggis (Genghis) Khan in developing the empire, the impact of the Mongols on Russia, China and the West, the development of trade, and European observations through the writings of Marco Polo. e. Explain the Ottoman Empire’s role in the decline of Byzantium and the capture of Constantinople in 1453 CE.
SSWH5 The student will trace the origins and expansion of the Islamic World between 600 CE and 1300 CE.
a. Explain the origins of Islam and the growth of the Islamic Empire. b. Identify the Muslim trade routes to India, China, Europe, and Africa and assess the economic impact of this trade. c. Explain the reasons for the split between Sunni and Shia Muslims. d. Identify the contributions of Islamic scholars in medicine (Ibn Sina) and geography (Ibn Battuta). e. Describe the impact of the Crusades on both the Islamic World and Europe. f. Analyze the relationship between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
From History-World.org, "The Origins of Christianity" edited by Robert A. Guisepi of History World International
'In the initial decades of the Roman Empire, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, a new religion, Christianity, emerged. Much of the impetus for this new religion rested in issues in the Jewish religion, including along-standing belief in the coming of a Messiah and rigidities that had developed in the Jewish priesthood. Whether or not Christianity was created by God, as Christians believe, the early stages of the religion focused on cleansing the Jewish religion of stiff rituals and haughty leaders. It had little at first to do with Roman culture. Christianity arose in a remote province and appealed particularly to the poorer classes. It is not easy, as a result, to fit Christianity neatly into the patterns of Roman history: It was deliberately separate, and only gradually had wider impact.
The Last Supper
The Last Supper
Christianity originated with Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish prophet and teacher who probably came to believe he was the Son of God and certainly was regarded as such by his disciples. Jesus preached in Israel during the time of Augustus, urging a purification of the Jewish religion that would free Israel and establish the kingdom of God on earth. He urged a moral code based on love, charity, and humility, and he asked the faithful to follow his lessons, abandoning worldly concern. Many disciples believed that a Final Judgment day was near at hand, on which God would reward the righteous with immortality and condemn sinners to everlasting hell.'
Monotheism is the belief in only one god. Although Akhenaton of Egypt is an example of the earliest known monotheist (14th Century BCE) it did not become the norm until the advent and rise of Christianity. Monotheism is a word coined in comparatively modern times to designate belief in the one supreme God, the Creator and Lord of the world, the eternal Spirit, All-powerful, All-wise, and All-good, the Rewarder of good and the Punisher of evil, the Source of our happiness and perfection. The word comes from two Greek words: monos meaning one and theos meaning god. Monotheism is one of the most influential attempts to establish God’s uniqueness. Monotheism is the view that God created the world such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. From the perspective of monotheism, God oversees and intervenes in human events, holy being, and a beneficent.
C. The Belief in Jesus as the Messiah and God’s Son Who Redeemed Humans From Sin.
Mural painting from the catacomb of Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one of first bearded images of Christ. Earlier Christian art in Rome portrayed Jesus most often as the Good Shepherd, disguised as Orpheus, young, beardless and in a short tunic. During the 4th century Jesus was beginning to be depicted as a man of identifiably Jewish appearance, with a full beard and long hair, a style not usually worn by Romans. The symbols on either side are Alpha and Omega signifying "I am the beginning and the end".
Mural painting from the catacomb of Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one of first bearded images of Christ. Earlier Christian art in Rome portrayed Jesus most often as the Good Shepherd, disguised as Orpheus, young, beardless and in a short tunic. During the 4th century Jesus was beginning to be depicted as a man of identifiably Jewish appearance, with a full beard and long hair, a style not usually worn by Romans. The symbols on either side are Alpha and Omega signifying "I am the beginning and the end".
Christians believe that Jesus’ dying on the cross was the ultimate sacrifice for humanity. They believe that he died to save the world from sin because he was the son of God in human form.
Peter said Jesus is the Messiah and the Son of God. Matthew 16:16.
Only God can open the mind of a person to believe that Jesus is the son of God. Matthew 16:17; John 6:44.
Jesus builds his church with people who believe Jesus is the Messiah and the Son of God. Matthew 16:16-18.
The word “Christ” comes from the Greek word “Christos”. Christos means the Anointed one or the Messiah. The word Christ is sometimes used as a name for Jesus. At other times Christ is used to describe the Messiah or Savior.
You can read more about how Jesus came to be revered and subsequently martyred as he sacrificed himself here
D. The Concept of Salvation.
Salvation generally means liberation from straitened circumstances or from other evils, and of a translation into a state of freedom and security (1 Samuel 11:13; 14:45; 2 Samuel 23:10; 2 Kings 13:17). At times Salvation expressed God's help against Israel's enemies. At other times, it expressed the Divine blessing bestowed on the produce of the soil (Isaiah 45:8). As sin is the greatest evil and the root and source of all evil, Sacred Scripture uses salvation mainly in the sense of liberation of the human race or individual man from sin and its consequences.
Initial salvation: a person’s conversion and repention of their sins.
Progressive Salvation: the journey of a believer between life and death. It is the only path that leads to eternal life (Roman 6:20-23).
Final salvation: final salvation refers to the event of God saving his people at the final judgment, the great divide between sheep and goats, wherein sheep are identified by their work of faith and labor of love and steadfastness of hope in the Lord Jesus Christ, and accepted on the ground of their union with Christ, the righteous substitute.
During Medieval times, salvation became a huge component of the spread and obsession with Christianity and 'being a good Christian'. This idea is in accordance with how monasteries became so prevalent and wealthy. People who had sinned would pay monks to pray for them, as monks were believed to have a stronger connection with God than the average person. Because so many people were paying the monks, monasteries became decadent and full of riches, also leading to corruption in the Church in years to come.
Lavish monasteries, such as this Monasterio dos Jeronimos in Lisbon, Portugal, were the product of donations made by Christians looking for salvation and forgiveness of sins.
During the same time as the monasteries were being established, convents were also being used to make young children into religious persons. Boys would go to monasteries to live, and girls would be sent to convents, or nunneries. Read more about women's role in this time period here. It was believed that if you were part of a convent or monastery, your salvation would be far easier to attain as your life would be dedicated to good deeds (in theory).
D. Belief in the Old and New Testament.
Christ Carrying Cross
Christ Carrying Cross
Old Testament: the belief that all versions and translations of the Hebrew Bible and is the first major part of the Bible used by Christians. It is usually divided by Judaism into the categories of law: Torah; prophecy: Neviim; and writings: Kethuvim (history, poetry, wisdom books); as denoted by the acronym Tanakh.
New Testament: sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures, and sometimes also New Covenant – which is the literal translation of the original Greek – is the name given to the final portion of the Christian Bible, written after the Old Testament. The original texts were written in Koine Greek by various authors after c. 45 AD and before c. 140 AD. Its books were gradually collected into a single volume over a period of several centuries. The New Testament is a central element of Christianity, and has played a major role in shaping modern Western culture.
The Old Testament describes the sacrificial system God gave the Israelites to temporarily cover their sins. The New Testament clarifies that this system alluded to the sacrifice of Christ through whom alone salvation is found (Acts 4:12; Hebrews 10:4-10). The Old Testament saw paradise lost; the New Testament shows how paradise was regained for mankind through the second Adam (Christ) and how it will one day be restored. The Old Testament declares that man was separated from God through sin (Genesis chapter 3), and the New Testament declares that man can now be restored in his relationship to God (Romans chapters 3–6). The Old Testament predicted the Messiah's life. The Gospels primarily record Jesus' life, and the Epistles interpret His life and how we are to respond to all He has done.
Saint Paul: with an emphasis on Christianity as a universal religion, Paul argued that the Law was utterly worthless in gaining salvation relied on the Greek and Roman legal concept of the spirit and the letter of the law. His goal was the expansion of the central teachings of Jesus of Nazareth throughout the Roman world. Saint Paul's full philosophy can be found here.
Jesus: narrowly conceived the religion as a religion of the Jews that strongly focuses on women and the social status of women. Jesus heralded the coming of a new age where all people would live as God's children, simply stated: "Treat others as you would wish to be treated." Jesus favored humility and acts of kindness, and though he did accept that he was called the Messiah, he stayed humble even while being crucified on the cross.
F. The Relationship Between Early Christians to Officials of the Roman Empire.
Christian texts are anti-Roman. They are consistently dismissive of human and worldly authority. Theses attitudes had to be changed for Christianity to flourish. Nicene creed: the basic statement of belief for orthodox Christianity. 312 AD, Constantine supposedly had a vision of the sign of Christ in a dream.
Conflicts grew for a variety of different reasons. The citizens of Rome should sponsor a sacrifice in the Roman temple once a year as a civic duty. Many Christians refused to accept the duty as it would force them to acknowledge the legitimacy of Pagan Gods. Christians ignored some Roman laws and Roman authorities labeled the entire Christian movement as a bunch of arsonists. Because of these conflicts Christians were constantly persecuted in the Roman Empire.
The "word Islam is an Arabic word that literally means 'submission to the will of God'. A Muslim is, literally, one who submits to the will of God." (Women in the Middle East, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Harvard University, 1998, p. 2).
The Qur'an is the holy book providing the messages and teachings from God (Allah) through Muhammad.
Believers still hold the Five Pillars as fundamental to the foundation of Islam.
All beliefs revolve around the central idea of complete submission to the one omnipotent god.
Islam began in the year 610, according to our calendar (Women in the Middle East, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Harvard University, 1998, p. 2)
1) The religion of Islam teaches that in about 610, the prophet Muhammad went into a cave in the Arabian mountains to pray. It is said that while Muhammad was inside the cave he heard the voice of the angel Gabriel. God told Muhammad through Gabriel that people had abandoned the true faith. Instead of worshiping only God, they worshiped many false gods. God told him that the people would submit to, or agree to obey, the one true God (Allah). Muhammad preached God’s word - that all people were brothers and sisters in a community established by God. People who accepted the teachings of Muhammad came to be known as Muslim (a person who submits). The religion of Muslims is called Islam.
A respectful image created for Draw Muhammad Day, May 20, 2010
A respectful image created for Draw Muhammad Day, May 20, 2010
To profess that there is no one god but Allah and Mohammed is his prophet; that is, a strict monotheism with Mohammed as the final prophet.
To pray five times daily, reciting from the Koran passages in praise of the Lord.
To give alms to the poor, and for the support of religious and good causes.
To fast from sunrise to sunset during the month of Ramadan.
To make the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, required of all believers at least once in their lifetime. (quoted from Lessons from History: Essential Understandings and Historical Perspectives Students Should Acquire, National Center for History in the Schools, 1992, p. 234).
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Famous Women in Islam (from Women in the Middle East, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Harvard University, 1998).
Khadijah, Muhammad's wife and first convert to Islam.
Aisha, a later wife of Muhammad who gave advice on religious matters to men and women.
Rabia al-Adawiyya, born in 717, often referred to as The Mystic and considered a saint by the Sufis.
Huda Sharawi, born in 1882 who founded only the second school for girls in Egypt in 1910 and was an activist in opposition to British control. was began a magazine advocating education for women, equal job opportunities, establishment of orphanages and women's centers.
Jamilah Buhrayd, born in 1937 and a national hero in the Algerian struggle for independence from France.
Nawal al-Saadawi, born in 1931 was an Egyptian feminist writer who denounced women's sexual and economic oppression.
The holy book of Islam is called the Quran It contains messages God revealed to Muhammad, including the rules of Islam. Many Muslims appreciate it in its original language, Arabic. Therefore, many converts to Islam learn Arabic. It puts a special emphasis on the concept of oneness of god and his concern about the spiritual and worldly welfare of man. The Holy Scripture also enlightens on the creation of the world, and, especially, of man; of good and evil spirits; man's responsibility for his actions; the Day of Judgement; the final account; and rewards and punishments.
The Quran was assembled during the reign of the caliph Uthman (Muhammad did not actually write down the messages that God revealed to him). It contains both surahs (which are like chapters) and ayas (which are like verses). Normally, it is arranged in length, from the longest to the shortest, except for the opening surah. It can also be arranged chronologically, with surahs from Mecca and Medina. The Meccan surahs tend to be more poetic, filled with imagery, and generally shorter. The surahs from Medina are longer and deal more with questions of law.
C. Islam’s historical relationship to Judaism and Christianity
Like the Torah, the Jewish holy book, and the Christian Bible, the Quran contains many kinds of writing, including stories, promises, warnings and instructions. There is a reason for the similarity of the Quran to Jewish and Christian holy books. Muslims, like Jews and Christians, believe in one God. They regard Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses as important in religious history. Muslims regard Christians and Jews as "people of the book."
D. The relationship between government and religion in Muslim societies
Islam holds that political life can only function properly within the context of Islamic law. To such believers, since God's law is universally true and beneficial to all people, any state law or action opposed to God's law would be harmful to the citizens and displeasing to God. Many Muslims consider the Western concept of separation of Church and State to be rebellion against God's law. There is a contemporary debate in Islam whether obedience to Islamic law is ultimately compatible with the Western secular pattern, which separates religion from civic life.
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E. Role of Women in Islam
While modern Islamic societies are often criticized for their subjugation and mistreatment of women, early Islam attempted to move towards equality between the genders. Compared to many other societies of the time, women were given extensive rights under Islamic Law. Upon coming of age, women were afforded many of the rights enjoyed by men: they could independently own property, they had a right to a share of their parents' inheritance, they could not be forced to marry without their explicit consent, and women had a right to draw up legally binding conditions for marriage and attain a divorce if these conditions are not met. However, many of these rights were lost as time passed and the political climate within the Islamic world changed. http://www.islamfortoday.com/benazir.htm
Bartel, N (11/01/2003). Medieval Islamic Cultures. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Medieval War, Warfare, Weapons, Armor, and Castles Web site: http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us-war
Beck, Black, Naylor & Shabaka, Roger, L., P., & Dahia Ibo (1999). World History. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell Inc.
Professor Broadbridge, September 28th, 2006 class notes. University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Denny, Frederick. An Introduction to Islam. Macmillan Publishing Company: New York.
The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, (1999). The Religion of Islam. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from The Religion of Islam Web site: http://www.iad.org/
Analyze the causes, course, and effect of Islamic expansion through North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and Central Asia
A. the strength of the Islamic world’s economy and culture B. the training of Muslim soldiers and the use of advanced military techniques C. the disorganization and internal divisions of Islam’s enemies D. the resistance and/or assimilation of Christianized peoples in the Mediterranean
Focus Question: What was the impact of Islamic expansion in North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula and Central Asia?
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Click here to see videos on the rise of Islam done by high school students in Plymouth (Massachusetts) teacher Greg Kulowiecz's classes.
Essential Understandings: A. The strength of the Islamic world’s economy and culture
Avicenna Woodcut, 1520
Avicenna Woodcut, 1520
Sciences
830: House of Wisdom established in Baghdad. Devoted to translating Greek works into Arabic. This leads to discussing the material and interacting intellectually. See also WHI.1
Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) wrote the Canon of Medicine. Wrote metaphysics, used by Thomas Aquinas.
Philosophers
Scholarly men begin to call themselves Faylasufs. They believed that 2 things could lead to an understanding of God: observation of the world and application of logic to what is observed. People in a lower world need to get to the higher world to be closer to God. Belief that God is timeless and ahistorical.
Examples of philosophers: al-Kindi, al-Razi, al-Farabi.
Poetry
Many literary figures were at the center of the Islamic court. These were people who were refined, fashionable, and cultivated. They were expected to be able to tell a story or a poem for any occasion.
Different types of poetry: praise poetry, hunting poetry, love poetry (when love is unrequited), wine poetry, political poetry.
Major poet: Abu Nuwas (d.815). Example of hunting poetry: "Often I go forth early before morning is clear and before the slowly advancing hens cluck/ With a peregrine, ruddy and whitish in color, sitting up on my fist like a little eagle..." (Abu Nuwas)
Example of love poetry: "You have taken me past the limits of pain. Because of you my tears never cease." (Abu Tamman, d.846)
Arts of the Book: calligraphy and miniature painting all part of a written book. At first, there is a ban on representational art because it is too close to God's work. God creates people, an artist can't. To get around this, artists used abstract patterns (Arabesque, Geometric, and Calligraphic). Eventually, the regulations relaxed.
B. The training of Muslim soldiers and the use of advanced military techniques.
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Archery was a very important part of Islamic military technology. The development of the modern bow and arrow was heavily influenced by the Islamic people.
C. The disorganization and internal divisions of Islam's enemies
Sassanids: constantly at war with the Roman and Byzantine Empires. The provinces of the Sassanid Empire were not united and many people felt no sense of allegiance to the central government. In 636 the Arabs defeated the Sassanids at the Battle of Qadisiyya. In the following six years, the Sassanids suffered more defeats and were finally brought down in 642.
North Africa: Egypt came under Islamic control in 645, but it was not until 663 under the Ummayad Dynasty that a campaign to expand into North Africa was launched. The Arabs were able to convert the Berbers to Islam. The Berbers even joined the Arab armies. Because of the support of the Berbers, Islamic expansion was able to continue all the way to the Atlantic Ocean.
Spain: A converted Berber leader, Tariq, commanded a force that invaded Spain in 711. During this time, the question of succession in Spain had caused a civil war. Tariq and his forces made it all the way to the southern tip of Spain (rock of Gibraltar) and continued to push towards France. In 932, Tariq's forces were stopped by the Franks. However, the disunity caused by the civil war and the disorganization of the Spanish soldiers allowed Tariq to conquer all the way to the Pyrenees.
Central Asia: Central Asia was mostly made up of various Turkish tribes. Because these tribes were not united together, the organized Islamic forces were able to conquer cities such as Samarqand and Bukhara.
D. the resistance and/or assimilation of Christianized peoples in the Mediterranean
Bibliography Arberry, A.J. Translated (1996). Man and the Sacred Rituals, Oracles, Prescriptions, Devotion. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Man and the Sacred Rituals, Oracles, Prescriptions, Devotion Web site:http://alexm.here.ru/mirrors/www.enteract.com/jwalz/Eliade/122.html
Bartel, N (11/01/2003). Medieval Islamic Cultures. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Medieval War, Warfare, Weapons, Armor, and Castles Web site: http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us-war
Beck, Black, Naylor & Shabaka, Roger, L., P., & Dahia Ibo (1999). World History. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell Inc.
The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, (1999). The Religion of Islam. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from The Religion of Islam Web site: http://www.iad.org/
Analyze the influence and achievements of Islamic civilization during its "Golden Age."
Focus Question: What were the achievements of Islamic civilization during its "Golden Age?"
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1001 Inventions and the Library of Secrets is a short film narrated by actor Ben Kingsley on the scientific heritage of Muslim civilization. This is part of a larger exhibit and website, "1001 Inventions/Discovering the Muslim Heritage in Our World/Uncovering 1000 Years of Science & Technology."
Map of the Arab/Islamic world at its greatest extent, c. 850. Image on Wikimedia Commons by Abbasids
Map of the Arab/Islamic world at its greatest extent, c. 850. Image on Wikimedia Commons by Abbasids
Click Here for a PBS timeline of the History of the Islamic Empire
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The Golden Age of Islam from the University of Chicago traces the background and areas of achievement of classical Islamic civilization from 610 to 1258 CE.
Essential Understandings
Islamic civilization made global contributions in three main areas: preservation and expansion of Greek thought, expansion of knowledge in the areas of science, philosophy and mathematics, and development of Islamic architecture. For more information, see The House of Wisdom: How Arabic Science Saved Ancient Knowledge and Gave Us the Renaissance. Jim al-Khalili (Penguin Press, 2011).
Preservation and expansion of Greek thought
According to Duiker and Speilvogel in their book Essential World History, "it was the Islamic world that was most responsible for preserving and spreading the scientific and philosophical achievements of ancient civilizations. At a time when Greek philosophy was largely unknown in Europe, key works by Aristotle, Plato, and other Greek philosophers were translated into Arabic and stored in a "house of wisdom" in Baghdad, where they were read and studied by Muslim scholars. Eventually, many of these works were translated into Latin and were brought to Europe, where they exercised a profound influence on the later course of Christianity and Western philosophy." (page 208)
Click here for an article on the House of Wisdom from the The Guardian, September 22, 2004.
Science
Anatomy Image from 11th century AH (17th century AD) Persian manuscript by Mansur ibn Muhammad Ahmad at the Majles Library, Tehran
Anatomy Image from 11th century AH (17th century AD) Persian manuscript by Mansur ibn Muhammad Ahmad at the Majles Library, Tehran
Astronomy
established an observatory at Baghdad
produced a map of the world with the knowledge that it was round in the 9th century
Discoveries in optics
Understanding of chemistry
Development of medicine as a scientific field
Avicenna's medical encyclopedia
Mathematics
Islamic scholars adopted the numerical system of India
Introduction of the use of zero
Founding of algebra
Replacement of Roman numerals with Arabic numerals
Philosophy
Medieval Islamic philosophy was centered predominately around the tenants of the Islamic faith. Many philosophers dealt with the life and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad while others grappled with the nature of Allah. Here are examples of some famous philosophers from the Islamic Empire.
Women's History during the Islamic Empire. Click Here for a detailed look at the lives of women in the Islamic Empire.
Sources:
William J. Duiker and Jackson J. Spielvogel, World History, Vol. 6 (Boston: Wadsworth).
Describe the central political, economic, and religious developments in major periods of Islamic history.
A. the sources of disagreement between Sunnis and Shi’ites
B. the importance of the trade routes connecting the Far East and Europe and the role of the Mongols in increasing trade along these routes, including the silk routes to China
C. the relationship of trade to the growth of Central Asian and Middle Eastern cities
D. the sources and uses of slaves in Islamic societies as well as the extent of the Islamic slave trade across Africa from 700 CE on.
Focus Question: What were the main political, economic and religious developments in Islamic history?
Distribution of Islam, Sunni (green) and Shi'a (blue), 2006. Countries in black have no data.
Distribution of Islam, Sunni (green) and Shi'a (blue), 2006. Countries in black have no data.
The Sunni
The Sunni branch, approximately 90% of all Muslims, argued that the Caliph should belong to Muhammad’s tribe, the Qurayah, and that the community should choose him by the process of consensus (ijma). Since Muhammad was the “Seal of the Prophets,” the Sunnis considered the responsibilities of the Caliph merely to guard—not continue—the prophetic legacy, and to provide “for the administration of community affairs in obedience to the Qur’an and prophetic precedent” (Kerr, 1982, p. 330).
Within thirty years of Muhammad’s death, four Caliphs were appointed in succession: Abu Bakr (632-634), ‘Umar (634-644), ‘Uthman (644-656), and ‘Ali (656-661). Sunnis regard these first Islamic leaders as “the four rightly guided Caliphs,” since they lived so close to Muhammad. Because of their chronological proximity to Muhammad,
Sunnis believe that the sunna (behavior or practice) of these four Caliphs, together with the Prophet’s, is authoritative for all Muslims.
The Sunnis derive their name from this emphasis on the sunna. While there are subdivisions of this group, distinguished by specific points of interpretation, they all refer to themselves as Sunni.
The Shi’a
The other major branch of Islam, Shi’a, claims approximately 10% of the Muslim population and are primarily located in Iraq and Iran. This branch is generally considered the more militant wing of the Islamic faith. The Shi’ites, as those comprising the Shi’a sect are called, splintered from the Sunnis primarily over the question of the Caliphate. Regarding this matter, there are specifically two points of disagreement between Shi’ites and Sunnis.
First of all, the Shi’ites place more rigid genealogical restrictions on the Caliph than do the Sunnis. On the one hand, Sunnis believe that the Caliph should be a descendant of Muhammad’s tribe. On the other hand, Shi’ites argue that the Caliph should descend specifically from ‘Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law. In fact, the word Shi’ite means “partisan” and indicates that Shi’ites are “partisans of ‘Ali” (Rood, 1994).
Secondly, the Shi’ites differ with the Sunnis regarding the authority of the Caliph. Unlike the Sunnis, Shi’ite Muslims believe that the Islamic leader, whom they call the imam, is more than merely a guardian of Muhammad’s prophetic legacy. Rather, Muhammad bequeathed ‘Ali with his wilaya (i.e., his “spiritual abilities”), enabling him to interpret the Qur’an and to lead the Islamic community infallibly. Though there are various interpretations, Shi’ites generally believe that the wilaya has been passed down through the subsequent generations of ‘Ali’s descendants. They further believe that this “cycle of the wilaya” will continue until the last day when humankind will be resurrected and judged (see Kerr, 1982, p. 331).
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For a NPR broadcast explaining the origins of Sunni-Shi’a conflict, see NPR series The Partisans of AliOverviewPart 1
The majority faction within the Shi’a branch, known as the Imamis (most of whom live in Iran), believes that the completion of the wilaya cycle will end with the messianic return of the twelfth imam.
According to this sect, the twelfth imam has been in “occultation” (the state of hiding) since the third century of Islam. They believe, however, that the ayatollahs (senior experts in Islamic law) have access to the hidden imam, and thus, have the right to interpret Islamic law and make religious rulings (Kerr, 1982, p. 331).
The late Ayatollah Khomeini, perhaps the most widely remembered Shi’ite leader among contemporary Westerners, was considered to be the spokesman for the hidden imam.
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For a brief explanation outlining the difference between Sunni’s and Shi’a, please check out either this brief article here or this quick slideshow here.
B. The growing influence of Turkish Islam after 1000.
For almost 400 years, a succession of Turkic peoples entered eastern Islamdom from Central Asia. These nearly continuous migrations can be divided into three phases: Seljuqs (1055-92), Mongols (1256-1411), and neo-Mongols (1369-1405). The modern nation of Turkey is named for its Turkish inhabitants, but the Turks were not originally from Turkey. Turkish Islam overtook Christianity in the region and eventually became a significant part of the Ottoman empire.
Due to a number of interrelated factors (such as climatic changes, the strain of growing populations, and pressure from stronger neighbors), the Seljuqs began moving into the Anatolian peninsula (modern-day Turkey).
Click here for a great website that includes the history of the Ottoman Empire, maps, military information, arts and culture, and more.
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Click here for an hour-long video about the conquest of the Ottoman Turks.
One of the main influences of the conquest of the Turks was the conversion from Christianity to Islam.
C. The importance of the trade routes connecting the Far East and Europe and the role of the Mongols in increasing trade along these routes, including the silk routes to China
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A Map of the Silk Road.The blue represent water routes while red represents land routes
Historical significance of various trade routes are often noted by the exchange of tangible resources from relatively isolated regions and inherently lead to the transmission of cultures from one region to another.
The "Silk Road" was actually not just one single pathway, but a branching of several passages of variating topography coming from the west through Central Asia. Many different precious commodities were traded throughout the route, from gold and ivory to animals and plants.
Additionally, this route didn't just exist for the sole purpose of trading goods as valuable as silk, but also acted as a persuasive route to share religion--the silk route was instrumental in proliferating Buddhism from India to China.
When the Mongols were about to siege territorial power through the enhanced communication that the route enabled--lead by Genghis Khan --a significant interaction of cultural foundations of different regions took place. The Mongolian Empire was known as the largest contiguous empire in world history. Compounding with the reality that Mongols were relatively tolerant of various religions, many nationalities and creeds were able to live in close proximity and enhance the ability to trade within the empire.
Silk Routes
Silk Routes
As a means to examine the importance of culture within these regions, the non-profit education site, The Silk Road Project supplies videos, music, and maps to help provide multicultural resources for educators.
D. The relationship of trade to the growth of Central Asian and Middle Eastern cities
The Expansion of trade enabled Central Asian and Middle Eastern cities - such as Baghdad, Cairo, Damascus, and Marrakech - to grow and flourish.
The Islamic Empire established trade relationships with the Byzantine Empire, Southeast Asia, China and East and West Africa. Goods such as gold, silk, wheat, ivory, and sugar were brought into the Middle East by ships and camel caravans.
These trading relationships were made possible by the use of banking, currency, and credit. (Duiker and Spielvogel, "The Essential World History," Thomson Wasdsworth, 2008. Pg. 156)
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A Map of the Mongolian Empire circa 1300 AD
Safavid Empire (1501-1722) was based on modern day Iran and rose to challenge the Ottoman and Mughal Empires.
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Explore the Learning Module: Women in Islamic History including primary source documents and lesson plans from Center for History and New Media at George Mason University.
E. The sources and uses of slaves in Islamic societies as well as the extent of the Islamic slave trade across Africa from 700 AD on.
The Islamic religion prevents Muslims from being enslaved. In an effort to circumvent these religious edicts, Islamic society had to import non-Muslim slaves from other regions.
Most often, these slaves came from Africa and parts of Asia outside the empire. They were made to serve in the army or as domestic servants, and in some instances, allowed to purchase their own freedom. Islam was heavily involved in the slave trade from 700 AD on, and made incursions by both land and sea into East and West Africa to bring slaves into Middle Eastern markets. (Duiker and Spielvogel, "The Essential World History," Thomson Wasdsworth, 2008. Pg. 158)
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Brandeis University’s “The Feminist Sexual Ethics Project provides a short article examining the origins of slavery in Islamic tradition and connected these beliefs to the current exploit of female labor in contemporary Islamic culture.
Focus Question: How did the Byzantine Empire develop and what were its major achievements?
"What we call the Byzantine Empire was in fact the eastern half of the Roman Empire, and its citizens referred to themselves as Roman from the founding of Constantinople in 323 to the fall of the city eleven centuries later.
"Byzantium's greatest emperor, Justinian, gave us Roman law--the basis for most European legal systems even today--its artisans gave us the brilliant mosaics of Ravenna and the supreme triumph of Hagia Sophia, and its scholars gave us the dazzling Greek and Latin classics that the Dark Ages nearly extinguished in the West."
Lars Brownworth, Lost to the West: The Forgotten Byzantine Empire That Rescued Western Civilization (Crown Publishers, 2009, p. xiv-xv).
The Byzantine Empire was a dominant power in the Mediterranean region between the years 330 and 1453. The Byzantine Empire began as the eastern branch of the Roman Empire. During the middle ages, it developed into an entity in and of itself controlling what were once the Roman Empire’s eastern territories. For an overview of the Byzantine Empire, consult materials from Professor E. L. Skip Knox's online course at Boise State University.
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Click on 12 Byzantine Rulers to listen to podcasts about the history of Byzantine Empire.
A. The influence of Constantine and the establishment of Christianity
Constantine gained control of the western part of the Roman empire after defeating his brother-in-law, and co-emperor, Maxentius. Once he became the sole power in the west, along with Licinius in the East, the process of Christianization began in the
Hagia_Irene.jpg
Hagia Eirene was the first church Constantine built in Constantinople.
empire.[1] In the Edict of Milan, which was issued by both Constantine and Licinius, civil rights and toleration were granted to Christians throughout the empire. Striving for more land and power, Constantine defeated Licinius in 323 and was the ruler of the entire Roman world. The capital of this new empire was Byzantium, and was re-founded as the “new Rome”. Constantine in 330, he changed the name of the capital to Constantinople, the city of Constantine. The architecture of the new capital was more influenced by Christian than Roman architecture. The derivation from Byzantium is suggestive in that it emphasizes a central aspect of Byzantine civilization: the degree to which the empire’s administrative and intellectual life found a focus at Constantinople from 330 to 1453, the year of the city’s last and unsuccessful defense under the 11th (or 12th) Constantine.
Constantine's conversion to Christianity began after he was praying for help in being victorious, he was shown a vision of a burning cross. Once he became the sole power in the Roman empire, life for Christians changed. Constantine felt that the church and state should be as closely related as possible, which mean a dramatic boom in the popularity of Christianity. Followers of the faith no longer had to fear persecution, and many Christian leaders experienced the generosity of the emperor. Constantine's loyalty to Christianity meant that it was everyone in his kingdom was exposed to this faith. In order to make it possible for many to attend church, Constantine made Sunday an official Roman holiday. Furthermore, churches were exempted from paying taxes. Although this type of action made people attend church and convert to Christianity for the wrong reasons, nonetheless, Constantine was instrumental in the spread of Christianity.
During the years 527 – 565 AD, the notorious emperor Justinian came to power. Justinian was committed to reestablishing the Roman Empire in the ancient world. He was responsible for reuniting the Western part of the empire with the East. His regime successfully conquered Italy, parts of Spain, North Africa, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Syria.[2] He is often known for his numerous works within the empire, such as, "military triumphs, legal work, ecclesiastical polity, and architecturalactivity."
Justinian successfully completed major public works projects (building bridges, bath houses, beautiful churches etc) and rebuilt the city of Constantinople. Justinian was responsible for many of the advances of the Byzantine Empire.
Byzantine mosaic in Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna, depicting Empress Theodora
Byzantine mosaic in Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna, depicting Empress Theodora
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He was also responsible for the codification of Roman law, the Justinian Code , which became the basis of official law in the region.[3] This code provided strict and ultimate laws that were to be followed by the kingdom.
The Justinian Code was made up of four parts.
1. The Codex
This part of the Code was made to make Christianity the sole religion of the empire. The provisions made under this section eventually united the Church and state. Anyone who was not Christian could not be a citizen.
2.The Institutes
This section was used as a textbook in law for students and lawyers.
3.The Digest
This part was used as a casebook with information on many trials and decisions. It could be used to help judges, and was essentially a summary of the common law already in place.
4.The Novels
This was the section that had new proposed laws.
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Click here for information on Empress Theodora and her influence on the expansion of women's rights.
C. The preservation of the Greek and Roman traditions
"When the Roman Empire in the West collapsed in 476, many libraries and places of learning were destroyed in the chaos and much of the knowledge that had been gained under the Greek and Roman civilizations was lost. However the eastern half of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine, survived. As a result the Byzantine served to preserve much of the Greek and Roman advancements for Western Europe. [11]" One of the most widely known preservation of the empire was the Justinian Code. In fact, after the code was deciphered, they lasted throughout history, and are even used as a guide for today's legal structure in places like the U.S.
The Byzantine Empire was heavily influenced by Roman tradition and the codification of Roman law. The Codification of Roman law was written in Latin – a trademark of Roman tradition. The Empire was also heavily influenced by Greek tradition – Greek was its official language.[5] Byzantine literature was heavily influenced by both Greek and Roman literature. To its contemporaries in the West, the Byzantine empire was considered Greek, while the Byzantine people considered themselves Romans.
D. Construction of the Church of Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia)
The original Hagia Sophia, originally named Megale Ekklesia (Great Church), was built by Constantine the Great. Unfortunately, it was destroyed during the 404 riots, and was rebuilt in 415 by Emperor Theodosius II. However, in a revolt in 532, the church was again destroyed. The Hagia Sophia was rebuilt to the form we see today by Justinian I between 532 and 537. With its complex design, the cathedral is representative of Byzantine architecture .[4]
SSWH4 The student will analyze the importance of the Byzantine and Mongol
empires between 450 CE and 1500 CE.
a. Analyze the importance of Justinian, include the influence of the Empress Theodora, Justinian’s Code, and Justinian’s efforts to recapture the west.
b. Describe the relationship between the Roman and Byzantine Empires; include the impact Byzantium had on Moscow and the Russian Empire, the effect of Byzantine culture on Tsar Ivan III and Kiev, and the rise of Constantinople as a center for law, religion, and the arts.
c. Explain the Great Schism of 1054 CE.
d. Analyze the spread of the Mongol Empire; include the role of Chinggis (Genghis) Khan in developing the empire, the impact of the Mongols on Russia, China and the West, the development of trade, and European observations through the writings of Marco Polo.
e. Explain the Ottoman Empire’s role in the decline of Byzantium and the capture of Constantinople in 1453 CE.
SSWH5 The student will trace the origins and expansion of the Islamic World between 600 CE and 1300 CE.
a. Explain the origins of Islam and the growth of the Islamic Empire.
b. Identify the Muslim trade routes to India, China, Europe, and Africa and assess the economic impact of this trade.
c. Explain the reasons for the split between Sunni and Shia Muslims.
d. Identify the contributions of Islamic scholars in medicine (Ibn Sina) and geography (Ibn Battuta).
e. Describe the impact of the Crusades on both the Islamic World and Europe.
f. Analyze the relationship between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Progress Chart
Progress Help Podcast
Unit 4 Vocabulary
Handouts
Information on Theodora for writing activity for Journal 23
Flipchart
Flip chart 1 Review Podcast
Flip chart 2 Review Podcast
Links of Information
JustinianMap of Constantinople
Justinian's Code
Islam Quick Facts
Muhammad's Life
Islamic Golden Age
The Great Schism of 1054
Empress Theodora
MEGA RESOURCES
Credit for the following informationDescribe the origins of Christianity and its central features
Focus Question: What were the central features of Christianity?
A. The Origins of Christianity
From History-World.org, "The Origins of Christianity" edited by Robert A. Guisepi of History World International
'In the initial decades of the Roman Empire, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, a new religion, Christianity, emerged. Much of the impetus for this new religion rested in issues in the Jewish religion, including along-standing belief in the coming of a Messiah and rigidities that had developed in the Jewish priesthood. Whether or not Christianity was created by God, as Christians believe, the early stages of the religion focused on cleansing the Jewish religion of stiff rituals and haughty leaders. It had little at first to do with Roman culture. Christianity arose in a remote province and appealed particularly to the poorer classes. It is not easy, as a result, to fit Christianity neatly into the patterns of Roman history: It was deliberately separate, and only gradually had wider impact.
Christianity originated with Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish prophet and teacher who probably came to believe he was the Son of God and certainly was regarded as such by his disciples. Jesus preached in Israel during the time of Augustus, urging a purification of the Jewish religion that would free Israel and establish the kingdom of God on earth. He urged a moral code based on love, charity, and humility, and he asked the faithful to follow his lessons, abandoning worldly concern. Many disciples believed that a Final Judgment day was near at hand, on which God would reward the righteous with immortality and condemn sinners to everlasting hell.'
Explore early Christian art from Rome at the British Museum's site.
For more information on Christianity, see Christianity: Background, Basic Beliefs, and Sacred Texts.
PBS's From Jesus to Christ - The First Christians - contains different links to read about aspects of the topics.B. Monotheism:
Monotheism is the belief in only one god. Although Akhenaton of Egypt is an example of the earliest known monotheist (14th Century BCE) it did not become the norm until the advent and rise of Christianity. Monotheism is a word coined in comparatively modern times to designate belief in the one supreme God, the Creator and Lord of the world, the eternal Spirit, All-powerful, All-wise, and All-good, the Rewarder of good and the Punisher of evil, the Source of our happiness and perfection. The word comes from two Greek words: monos meaning one and theos meaning god. Monotheism is one of the most influential attempts to establish God’s uniqueness. Monotheism is the view that God created the world such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. From the perspective of monotheism, God oversees and intervenes in human events, holy being, and a beneficent.
C. The Belief in Jesus as the Messiah and God’s Son Who Redeemed Humans From Sin.
Christians believe that Jesus’ dying on the cross was the ultimate sacrifice for humanity. They believe that he died to save the world from sin because he was the son of God in human form.
The word “Christ” comes from the Greek word “Christos”. Christos means the Anointed one or the Messiah. The word Christ is sometimes used as a name for Jesus. At other times Christ is used to describe the Messiah or Savior.
You can read more about how Jesus came to be revered and subsequently martyred as he sacrificed himself here
D. The Concept of Salvation.
Salvation generally means liberation from straitened circumstances or from other evils, and of a translation into a state of freedom and security (1 Samuel 11:13; 14:45; 2 Samuel 23:10; 2 Kings 13:17). At times Salvation expressed God's help against Israel's enemies. At other times, it expressed the Divine blessing bestowed on the produce of the soil (Isaiah 45:8). As sin is the greatest evil and the root and source of all evil, Sacred Scripture uses salvation mainly in the sense of liberation of the human race or individual man from sin and its consequences.
Initial salvation: a person’s conversion and repention of their sins.
Progressive Salvation: the journey of a believer between life and death. It is the only path that leads to eternal life (Roman 6:20-23).
Final salvation: final salvation refers to the event of God saving his people at the final judgment, the great divide between sheep and goats, wherein sheep are identified by their work of faith and labor of love and steadfastness of hope in the Lord Jesus Christ, and accepted on the ground of their union with Christ, the righteous substitute.
During Medieval times, salvation became a huge component of the spread and obsession with Christianity and 'being a good Christian'. This idea is in accordance with how monasteries became so prevalent and wealthy. People who had sinned would pay monks to pray for them, as monks were believed to have a stronger connection with God than the average person. Because so many people were paying the monks, monasteries became decadent and full of riches, also leading to corruption in the Church in years to come.
Lavish monasteries, such as this Monasterio dos Jeronimos in Lisbon, Portugal, were the
product of donations made by Christians looking for salvation and forgiveness of sins.
During the same time as the monasteries were being established, convents were also being used to make young children into religious persons. Boys would go to monasteries to live, and girls would be sent to convents, or nunneries. Read more about women's role in this time period here. It was believed that if you were part of a convent or monastery, your salvation would be far easier to attain as your life would be dedicated to good deeds (in theory).
D. Belief in the Old and New Testament.
Old Testament: the belief that all versions and translations of the Hebrew Bible and is the first major part of the Bible used by Christians. It is usually divided by Judaism into the categories of law: Torah; prophecy: Neviim; and writings: Kethuvim (history, poetry, wisdom books); as denoted by the acronym Tanakh.
New Testament: sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures, and sometimes also New Covenant – which is the literal translation of the original Greek – is the name given to the final portion of the Christian Bible, written after the Old Testament. The original texts were written in Koine Greek by various authors after c. 45 AD and before c. 140 AD. Its books were gradually collected into a single volume over a period of several centuries. The New Testament is a central element of Christianity, and has played a major role in shaping modern Western culture.
The Old Testament describes the sacrificial system God gave the Israelites to temporarily cover their sins. The New Testament clarifies that this system alluded to the sacrifice of Christ through whom alone salvation is found (Acts 4:12; Hebrews 10:4-10). The Old Testament saw paradise lost; the New Testament shows how paradise was regained for mankind through the second Adam (Christ) and how it will one day be restored. The Old Testament declares that man was separated from God through sin (Genesis chapter 3), and the New Testament declares that man can now be restored in his relationship to God (Romans chapters 3–6). The Old Testament predicted the Messiah's life. The Gospels primarily record Jesus' life, and the Epistles interpret His life and how we are to respond to all He has done.
NOVA's Origins of the Written Bible
this is a timeline of events in the Old Testament, ending in the birth of Christ
E. Lives and Teachings of Jesus and Saint Paul.
Saint Paul: with an emphasis on Christianity as a universal religion, Paul argued that the Law was utterly worthless in gaining salvation relied on the Greek and Roman legal concept of the spirit and the letter of the law. His goal was the expansion of the central teachings of Jesus of Nazareth throughout the Roman world. Saint Paul's full philosophy can be found here.
Jesus: narrowly conceived the religion as a religion of the Jews that strongly focuses on women and the social status of women. Jesus heralded the coming of a new age where all people would live as God's children, simply stated: "Treat others as you would wish to be treated." Jesus favored humility and acts of kindness, and though he did accept that he was called the Messiah, he stayed humble even while being crucified on the cross.
List of all Sermons given by Jesus in the Bible.
http://www.lifeofchrist.com/teachings/sermons/default.asp
See The Life and Teachings of Jesus by Preston Thomas for more information on Jesus's life and teachings.
F. The Relationship Between Early Christians to Officials of the Roman Empire.
Christian texts are anti-Roman. They are consistently dismissive of human and worldly authority. Theses attitudes had to be changed for Christianity to flourish. Nicene creed: the basic statement of belief for orthodox Christianity. 312 AD, Constantine supposedly had a vision of the sign of Christ in a dream.
Conflicts grew for a variety of different reasons. The citizens of Rome should sponsor a sacrifice in the Roman temple once a year as a civic duty. Many Christians refused to accept the duty as it would force them to acknowledge the legitimacy of Pagan Gods. Christians ignored some Roman laws and Roman authorities labeled the entire Christian movement as a bunch of arsonists. Because of these conflicts Christians were constantly persecuted in the Roman Empire.
Sources
- Bernard, David K. (1998). Christina Monotheism. Retrieved February 14, 2007, from The pentecostal home page Web site: http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/pentecostal/One-Ch1.htm
- Answers Corporation, (2007). Answers.com. Retrieved March 21, 2007, from Answers.com Web site: http://www.answers.com/topic/monotheism
- Sunday school resource.com, (2002). Peter confessed Jesus is the Messiah. Retrieved March 22, 2007, from Sunday school resource.com Web site: http://www.sundayschoolresources.com/btpetersconfession.htm
- Wikipedia Foundation, Inc., (2007). Jesus. Retrieved February 14, 2007, from Wikipedia Web site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus
- Theopedia, (2006, Oct). Salvation. Retrieved February 14, 2007, from Theopedia Web site: http://www.theopedia.com/Salvation
- Maas, A.J. (2007). Salvation. Retrieved March 22, 2007, from New Advant Web site: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13407a.htm
- Wikipedia Foundation, Inc., (2007). Old Testament. Retrieved February 14, 2007, from Wikipedia Web site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/old testament
- Wikipedia Foundation, Inc., (2007). New Testament. Retrieved February 14, 2007, from Wikipedia Web site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/new
- Hines, Richard (1996). Early Christian. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Christians Web site: http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CHRIST/PAUL.HTM
- Chew, Robin (1995). Jesus of Nazareth. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Lucidcafe Web site: http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95dec/jesus.html
- Heaton, Chris (2005). Christianity. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from UNRV History Web site: http://www.unrv.com/culture/christianity.php
- Robinson, B.A. (2005, May, 28). History of Christianity. Retrieved March 22, 2007, from Religious Tolerance Web site: http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_hise.htm
- http://www.gotquestions.org/difference-old-new-testaments.html
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10499a.htmhttp://www.lifeofchrist.com/teachings/sermons/default.asp http://history-world.org/origins_of_christianity.htm
New Sources:
The Origins of Christianity (2006). Retrieved 2 August 2011 from World History Project's site: http://history-world.org/origins_of_christianity.htm.
From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians (2011). Retrieved 2 August 2011 from WGBH Educational Foundation's site:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/watch/.
The Life and Teachings of Jesus. Retrieved 2 August 2011 from: http://www.lifeandteachingsofjesus.org/.
British Museum--Room 70: Roman Empire. Retrieved 2 August 2011 from the British Museum's site:
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/galleries/ancient_greece_and_rome/room_70_roman_empire.aspx.
Christianity: Background, Basic Beliefs, and Sacred Texts (2002). Retrieved 2 August 2011 from United Religion Initiative's site:
http://www.uri.org/kids/world_chri_basi.htm.
Images obtained from Wikimedia Commons.
Describe significant aspects of Islamic belief.
Focus Question: What are the significant concepts of Islam?
A. The life and teachings of Muhammad
1) The religion of Islam teaches that in about 610, the prophet Muhammad went into a cave in the Arabian mountains to pray. It is said that while Muhammad was inside the cave he heard the voice of the angel Gabriel. God told Muhammad through Gabriel that people had abandoned the true faith. Instead of worshiping only God, they worshiped many false gods. God told him that the people would submit to, or agree to obey, the one true God (Allah). Muhammad preached God’s word - that all people were brothers and sisters in a community established by God. People who accepted the teachings of Muhammad came to be known as Muslim (a person who submits). The religion of Muslims is called Islam.
Five Pillars of Islam
B. The significance of the Qur’an as the primary source of Islamic belief
The holy book of Islam is called the Quran It contains messages God revealed to Muhammad, including the rules of Islam. Many Muslims appreciate it in its original language, Arabic. Therefore, many converts to Islam learn Arabic. It puts a special emphasis on the concept of oneness of god and his concern about the spiritual and worldly welfare of man. The Holy Scripture also enlightens on the creation of the world, and, especially, of man; of good and evil spirits; man's responsibility for his actions; the Day of Judgement; the final account; and rewards and punishments.
The Quran was assembled during the reign of the caliph Uthman (Muhammad did not actually write down the messages that God revealed to him). It contains both surahs (which are like chapters) and ayas (which are like verses). Normally, it is arranged in length, from the longest to the shortest, except for the opening surah. It can also be arranged chronologically, with surahs from Mecca and Medina. The Meccan surahs tend to be more poetic, filled with imagery, and generally shorter. The surahs from Medina are longer and deal more with questions of law.
C. Islam’s historical relationship to Judaism and Christianity
Like the Torah, the Jewish holy book, and the Christian Bible, the Quran contains many kinds of writing, including stories, promises, warnings and instructions. There is a reason for the similarity of the Quran to Jewish and Christian holy books. Muslims, like Jews and Christians, believe in one God. They regard Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses as important in religious history. Muslims regard Christians and Jews as "people of the book."
D. The relationship between government and religion in Muslim societies
Islam holds that political life can only function properly within the context of Islamic law. To such believers, since God's law is universally true and beneficial to all people, any state law or action opposed to God's law would be harmful to the citizens and displeasing to God. Many Muslims consider the Western concept of separation of Church and State to be rebellion against God's law. There is a contemporary debate in Islam whether obedience to Islamic law is ultimately compatible with the Western secular pattern, which separates religion from civic life.
While modern Islamic societies are often criticized for their subjugation and mistreatment of women, early Islam attempted to move towards equality between the genders. Compared to many other societies of the time, women were given extensive rights under Islamic Law. Upon coming of age, women were afforded many of the rights enjoyed by men: they could independently own property, they had a right to a share of their parents' inheritance, they could not be forced to marry without their explicit consent, and women had a right to draw up legally binding conditions for marriage and attain a divorce if these conditions are not met. However, many of these rights were lost as time passed and the political climate within the Islamic world changed. http://www.islamfortoday.com/benazir.htm
Framework: WHI.2 C(Beck, et. al., 1999)
http://www.answering-islam.org/Muhammad/index.html
http://www.al-islam.org/glorious_quran/9.htm
http://seniorspeace.mennonite.net/mjeschke.html
Bibliography
Arberry, A.J. Translated (1996). Man and the Sacred Rituals, Oracles, Prescriptions, Devotion. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Man and the Sacred Rituals, Oracles, Prescriptions, Devotion Web site:http://alexm.here.ru/mirrors/www.enteract.com/jwalz/Eliade/122.html
Bartel, N (11/01/2003). Medieval Islamic Cultures. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Medieval War, Warfare, Weapons, Armor, and Castles Web site: http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us-war
Bartel, N (11/01/2003). Medieval Islamic Cultures. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Part V: New Weapons of the Muslim Armies Web site: http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/War/Weapons2.html
Beck, Black, Naylor & Shabaka, Roger, L., P., & Dahia Ibo (1999). World History. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell Inc.
Professor Broadbridge, September 28th, 2006 class notes. University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Denny, Frederick. An Introduction to Islam. Macmillan Publishing Company: New York.
The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, (1999). The Religion of Islam. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from The Religion of Islam Web site: http://www.iad.org/
Transl. Arberry, A.J. (1996). Man and the Sacred Rituals, Oracles, Prescriptions, Devotion. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Man and the Sacred Rituals, Oracles, Prescriptions, Devotion Web site:http://alexm.here.ru/mirrors/www.enteract.com/jwalz/Eliade/122.html
Spielvogel, Jackson J (2005). Glencoe World History. Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
USC Muslim Students Association Islamic Server, Syed Abu-Ala' Maududi's Chapter Introductions to the Qur'an. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from AL-FATIHAH Web site:http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/quran/maududi/mau1.html
Analyze the causes, course, and effect of Islamic expansion through North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and Central Asia
A. the strength of the Islamic world’s economy and cultureB. the training of Muslim soldiers and the use of advanced military techniques
C. the disorganization and internal divisions of Islam’s enemies
D. the resistance and/or assimilation of Christianized peoples in the Mediterranean
Focus Question: What was the impact of Islamic expansion in North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula and Central Asia?
Essential Understandings: A. The strength of the Islamic world’s economy and culture
B. The training of Muslim soldiers and the use of advanced military techniques.
C. The disorganization and internal divisions of Islam's enemies
D. the resistance and/or assimilation of Christianized peoples in the Mediterranean
Christians and Muslims in the Middle Ages
Bibliography
Arberry, A.J. Translated (1996). Man and the Sacred Rituals, Oracles, Prescriptions, Devotion. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Man and the Sacred Rituals, Oracles, Prescriptions, Devotion Web site:http://alexm.here.ru/mirrors/www.enteract.com/jwalz/Eliade/122.html
Bartel, N (11/01/2003). Medieval Islamic Cultures. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Medieval War, Warfare, Weapons, Armor, and Castles Web site: http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us-war
Bartel, N (11/01/2003). Medieval Islamic Cultures. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Part V: New Weapons of the Muslim Armies Web site: http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/War/Weapons2.html
Beck, Black, Naylor & Shabaka, Roger, L., P., & Dahia Ibo (1999). World History. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell Inc.
The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, (1999). The Religion of Islam. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from The Religion of Islam Web site: http://www.iad.org/
Transl. Arberry, A.J. (1996). Man and the Sacred Rituals, Oracles, Prescriptions, Devotion. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Man and the Sacred Rituals, Oracles, Prescriptions, Devotion Web site:http://alexm.here.ru/mirrors/www.enteract.com/jwalz/Eliade/122.html
Spielvogel, Jackson J (2005). Glencoe World History. Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
USC Muslim Students Association Islamic Server, Syed Abu-Ala' Maududi's Chapter Introductions to the Qur'an. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from AL-FATIHAH Web site:http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/quran/maududi/mau1.html
Analyze the influence and achievements of Islamic civilization during its "Golden Age."
Focus Question: What were the achievements of Islamic civilization during its "Golden Age?"
Click Here for a PBS timeline of the History of the Islamic Empire
Essential Understandings
Islamic civilization made global contributions in three main areas: preservation and expansion of Greek thought, expansion of knowledge in the areas of science, philosophy and mathematics, and development of Islamic architecture. For more information, see The House of Wisdom: How Arabic Science Saved Ancient Knowledge and Gave Us the Renaissance. Jim al-Khalili (Penguin Press, 2011).
Preservation and expansion of Greek thought
According to Duiker and Speilvogel in their book Essential World History, "it was the Islamic world that was most responsible for preserving and spreading the scientific and philosophical achievements of ancient civilizations. At a time when Greek philosophy was largely unknown in Europe, key works by Aristotle, Plato, and other Greek philosophers were translated into Arabic and stored in a "house of wisdom" in Baghdad, where they were read and studied by Muslim scholars. Eventually, many of these works were translated into Latin and were brought to Europe, where they exercised a profound influence on the later course of Christianity and Western philosophy." (page 208)
Click here for an article on the House of Wisdom from the The Guardian, September 22, 2004.
Science
Mathematics
Philosophy
Medieval Islamic philosophy was centered predominately around the tenants of the Islamic faith. Many philosophers dealt with the life and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad while others grappled with the nature of Allah. Here are examples of some famous philosophers from the Islamic Empire.
Islamic architecture
The Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem): Built as the proclamation of the spiritual and political legitimacy of Islam in 691.
The Great Mosque of Samarra.
The Great Mosque of Cordoba (Spain)
Sources:
William J. Duiker and Jackson J. Spielvogel, World History, Vol. 6 (Boston: Wadsworth).
Describe the central political, economic, and religious developments in major periods of Islamic history.
A. the sources of disagreement between Sunnis and Shi’ites
B. the importance of the trade routes connecting the Far East and Europe and the role of the Mongols in increasing trade along these routes, including the silk routes to China
C. the relationship of trade to the growth of Central Asian and Middle Eastern cities
D. the sources and uses of slaves in Islamic societies as well as the extent of the Islamic slave trade across Africa from 700 CE on.
Focus Question: What were the main political, economic and religious developments in Islamic history?
A. The sources of disagreement between Sunnis and Shi’ites
The Sunni
The Sunni branch, approximately 90% of all Muslims, argued that the Caliph should belong to Muhammad’s tribe, the Qurayah, and that the community should choose him by the process of consensus (ijma). Since Muhammad was the “Seal of the Prophets,” the Sunnis considered the responsibilities of the Caliph merely to guard—not continue—the prophetic legacy, and to provide “for the administration of community affairs in obedience to the Qur’an and prophetic precedent” (Kerr, 1982, p. 330).
The Shi’a
The other major branch of Islam, Shi’a, claims approximately 10% of the Muslim population and are primarily located in Iraq and Iran. This branch is generally considered the more militant wing of the Islamic faith. The Shi’ites, as those comprising the Shi’a sect are called, splintered from the Sunnis primarily over the question of the Caliphate. Regarding this matter, there are specifically two points of disagreement between Shi’ites and Sunnis.
The majority faction within the Shi’a branch, known as the Imamis (most of whom live in Iran), believes that the completion of the wilaya cycle will end with the messianic return of the twelfth imam.
According to this sect, the twelfth imam has been in “occultation” (the state of hiding) since the third century of Islam. They believe, however, that the ayatollahs (senior experts in Islamic law) have access to the hidden imam, and thus, have the right to interpret Islamic law and make religious rulings (Kerr, 1982, p. 331).
The late Ayatollah Khomeini, perhaps the most widely remembered Shi’ite leader among contemporary Westerners, was considered to be the spokesman for the hidden imam.
B. The growing influence of Turkish Islam after 1000.
For almost 400 years, a succession of Turkic peoples entered eastern Islamdom from Central Asia. These nearly continuous migrations can be divided into three phases: Seljuqs (1055-92), Mongols (1256-1411), and neo-Mongols (1369-1405). The modern nation of Turkey is named for its Turkish inhabitants, but the Turks were not originally from Turkey. Turkish Islam overtook Christianity in the region and eventually became a significant part of the Ottoman empire.
Due to a number of interrelated factors (such as climatic changes, the strain of growing populations, and pressure from stronger neighbors), the Seljuqs began moving into the Anatolian peninsula (modern-day Turkey).
Click here for a great website that includes the history of the Ottoman Empire, maps, military information, arts and culture, and more.
One of the main influences of the conquest of the Turks was the conversion from Christianity to Islam.
C. The importance of the trade routes connecting the Far East and Europe and the role of the Mongols in increasing trade along these routes, including the silk routes to China
Historical significance of various trade routes are often noted by the exchange of tangible resources from relatively isolated regions and inherently lead to the transmission of cultures from one region to another.
The "Silk Road" was actually not just one single pathway, but a branching of several passages of variating topography coming from the west through Central Asia. Many different precious commodities were traded throughout the route, from gold and ivory to animals and plants.
Additionally, this route didn't just exist for the sole purpose of trading goods as valuable as silk, but also acted as a persuasive route to share religion--the silk route was instrumental in proliferating Buddhism from India to China.
When the Mongols were about to siege territorial power through the enhanced communication that the route enabled--lead by Genghis Khan --a significant interaction of cultural foundations of different regions took place. The Mongolian Empire was known as the largest contiguous empire in world history. Compounding with the reality that Mongols were relatively tolerant of various religions, many nationalities and creeds were able to live in close proximity and enhance the ability to trade within the empire.
As a means to examine the importance of culture within these regions, the non-profit education site, The Silk Road Project supplies videos, music, and maps to help provide multicultural resources for educators.
For teaching material, see the educator section of the International Dunhuang Project: The Silk Road Online**.
Take a look at this Silk Road Lesson Plan from The Ohio Council for the Social Studies and it's supplemental worksheets.
From Silk to Oil: Cross-Cultural Connection Along the Silk Roads offers curriculum materials for teachers and students.
Secrets of the Silk Road from the Penn Museum presents a short overview of gallery images.
D. The relationship of trade to the growth of Central Asian and Middle Eastern cities
The Expansion of trade enabled Central Asian and Middle Eastern cities - such as Baghdad, Cairo, Damascus, and Marrakech - to grow and flourish.
The Islamic Empire established trade relationships with the Byzantine Empire, Southeast Asia, China and East and West Africa. Goods such as gold, silk, wheat, ivory, and sugar were brought into the Middle East by ships and camel caravans.
These trading relationships were made possible by the use of banking, currency, and credit. (Duiker and Spielvogel, "The Essential World History," Thomson Wasdsworth, 2008. Pg. 156)
Safavid Empire (1501-1722) was based on modern day Iran and rose to challenge the Ottoman and Mughal Empires.
E. The sources and uses of slaves in Islamic societies as well as the extent of the Islamic slave trade across Africa from 700 AD on.
The Islamic religion prevents Muslims from being enslaved. In an effort to circumvent these religious edicts, Islamic society had to import non-Muslim slaves from other regions.
Most often, these slaves came from Africa and parts of Asia outside the empire. They were made to serve in the army or as domestic servants, and in some instances, allowed to purchase their own freedom. Islam was heavily involved in the slave trade from 700 AD on, and made incursions by both land and sea into East and West Africa to bring slaves into Middle Eastern markets. (Duiker and Spielvogel, "The Essential World History," Thomson Wasdsworth, 2008. Pg. 158)
The Burqa, Chador, Veil and Hijab! Historical Perspectives on Islamic Dressfrom the Women in World History Curriculum project.
Links:
[1] Cult and Sects of Islam. Retrieved February 12, 2010, Web site: http://www.apologeticsindex.org/i07ad.html
[2]What’s the Difference: Sunni & Shi’a? Retrieved February 12, 2010, Web site: http://www.neatorama.com/2007/03/13/whats-the-difference-shia-vs-sunni/
3] NPR: “The Partisans of Ali.” Retrieved February 12, 2010, Web site: http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7309835&ps=rs
[4] The Silk Road Project. Retrieved February 12, 2010, Web site: http://www.silkroadproject.org/
[5] The Feminist Sexual Ethics Project: Retrieved February 13, 2012, Web site: http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/Pages/islamandslavery.html
Describe the rise and achievements of the Byzantine Empire
A. the influence of Constantine, including the establishment of Christianity as an officially sanctioned religion.
B. the importance of Justinian and the Code of Justinian
C. the preservation of Greek and Roman traditions
D. the construction of the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia).
Focus Question: How did the Byzantine Empire develop and what were its major achievements?
"What we call the Byzantine Empire was in fact the eastern half of the Roman Empire, and its citizens referred to themselves as Roman from the founding of Constantinople in 323 to the fall of the city eleven centuries later.
"Byzantium's greatest emperor, Justinian, gave us Roman law--the basis for most European legal systems even today--its artisans gave us the brilliant mosaics of Ravenna and the supreme triumph of Hagia Sophia, and its scholars gave us the dazzling Greek and Latin classics that the Dark Ages nearly extinguished in the West."
Lars Brownworth, Lost to the West: The Forgotten Byzantine Empire That Rescued Western Civilization (Crown Publishers, 2009, p. xiv-xv).
The Byzantine Empire was a dominant power in the Mediterranean region between the years 330 and 1453. The Byzantine Empire began as the eastern branch of the Roman Empire. During the middle ages, it developed into an entity in and of itself controlling what were once the Roman Empire’s eastern territories. For an overview of the Byzantine Empire, consult materials from Professor E. L. Skip Knox's online course at Boise State University.
A. The influence of Constantine and the establishment of Christianity
Constantine gained control of the western part of the Roman empire after defeating his brother-in-law, and co-emperor, Maxentius. Once he became the sole power in the west, along with Licinius in the East, the process of Christianization began in the
empire.[1] In the Edict of Milan, which was issued by both Constantine and Licinius, civil rights and toleration were granted to Christians throughout the empire. Striving for more land and power, Constantine defeated Licinius in 323 and was the ruler of the entire Roman world. The capital of this new empire was Byzantium, and was re-founded as the “new Rome”. Constantine in 330, he changed the name of the capital to Constantinople, the city of Constantine. The architecture of the new capital was more influenced by Christian than Roman architecture. The derivation from Byzantium is suggestive in that it emphasizes a central aspect of Byzantine civilization: the degree to which the empire’s administrative and intellectual life found a focus at Constantinople from 330 to 1453, the year of the city’s last and unsuccessful defense under the 11th (or 12th) Constantine.
Constantine's conversion to Christianity began after he was praying for help in being victorious, he was shown a vision of a burning cross. Once he became the sole power in the Roman empire, life for Christians changed. Constantine felt that the church and state should be as closely related as possible, which mean a dramatic boom in the popularity of Christianity. Followers of the faith no longer had to fear persecution, and many Christian leaders experienced the generosity of the emperor. Constantine's loyalty to Christianity meant that it was everyone in his kingdom was exposed to this faith. In order to make it possible for many to attend church, Constantine made Sunday an official Roman holiday. Furthermore, churches were exempted from paying taxes. Although this type of action made people attend church and convert to Christianity for the wrong reasons, nonetheless, Constantine was instrumental in the spread of Christianity.
B. The Importance of Justinian and the Code of Justinian
During the years 527 – 565 AD, the notorious emperor Justinian came to power. Justinian was committed to reestablishing the Roman Empire in the ancient world. He was responsible for reuniting the Western part of the empire with the East. His regime successfully conquered Italy, parts of Spain, North Africa, Asia Minor, Palestine, and Syria.[2] He is often known for his numerous works within the empire, such as, "military triumphs, legal work, ecclesiastical polity, and architecturalactivity."
Justinian successfully completed major public works projects (building bridges, bath houses, beautiful churches etc) and rebuilt the city of Constantinople. Justinian was responsible for many of the advances of the Byzantine Empire.
The Justinian Code was made up of four parts.
1. The Codex
This part of the Code was made to make Christianity the sole religion of the empire. The provisions made under this section eventually united the Church and state. Anyone who was not Christian could not be a citizen.
2.The Institutes
This section was used as a textbook in law for students and lawyers.
3.The Digest
This part was used as a casebook with information on many trials and decisions. It could be used to help judges, and was essentially a summary of the common law already in place.
4.The Novels
This was the section that had new proposed laws.
C. The preservation of the Greek and Roman traditions
"When the Roman Empire in the West collapsed in 476, many libraries and places of learning were destroyed in the chaos and much of the knowledge that had been gained under the Greek and Roman civilizations was lost. However the eastern half of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine, survived. As a result the Byzantine served to preserve much of the Greek and Roman advancements for Western Europe. [11]" One of the most widely known preservation of the empire was the Justinian Code. In fact, after the code was deciphered, they lasted throughout history, and are even used as a guide for today's legal structure in places like the U.S.
The Byzantine Empire was heavily influenced by Roman tradition and the codification of Roman law. The Codification of Roman law was written in Latin – a trademark of Roman tradition. The Empire was also heavily influenced by Greek tradition – Greek was its official language.[5] Byzantine literature was heavily influenced by both Greek and Roman literature. To its contemporaries in the West, the Byzantine empire was considered Greek, while the Byzantine people considered themselves Romans.
D. Construction of the Church of Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia)
The original Hagia Sophia, originally named Megale Ekklesia (Great Church), was built by Constantine the Great. Unfortunately, it was destroyed during the 404 riots, and was rebuilt in 415 by Emperor Theodosius II. However, in a revolt in 532, the church was again destroyed. The Hagia Sophia was rebuilt to the form we see today by Justinian I between 532 and 537. With its complex design, the cathedral is representative of Byzantine architecture .[4]
References
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/87186/Byzantine-Empire
[1]Vasilief, Al. (1928). The Foundation of Constantinople. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from A Brief History of the Byzantine Empire Web site: http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/vasilief/foundation-of-constantinople.asp
[2]Funk & Wagnalls, (2006). Justinian I. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from History Channel Web site: http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=213474
[3] Fader, Hallie (2004). Justinian Code. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from ORIAS - UC Berkeley Web site: http://ias.berkeley.edu/orias/summer2004/summer2004JustinianCode.htm
[4] Epiphany Byzantine Catholic Church, (2005). The Hagia Sophia. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Byzantines.Net Web site: http://www.byzantines.net/epiphany/hagiasophia.htm
[5] Mango, Cyril (1980). Mango Byzantium: The Empire of New Rome. Retrieved February 15, 2007, from Fordham Web site: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/mango.html
[6] http://www.diigo.com/bookmark/http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenagain.info%2FWebChron%2Feasteurope%2FConstantineConverts.html?tab=comment
[7] http://www.diigo.com/bookmark/http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyguide.org%2Fancient%2Fconstantine.html?tab=comment
[8] http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08578b.htm
[9] http://www.diigo.com/bookmark/http%3A%2F%2Fcontract-law.laws.com%2Fjustinian-code?tab=comment
[10] http://www.canadianlawsite.ca/JustinianCode.htm
[11] http://www.diigo.com/bookmark/http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fhaso%2Fhd_haso.htm?tab=comment